Introduction

1 Introduction

At first sight, “Europeanization beyond Europe” seems like an improbable candidate for a literature review. First, the sceptical reader may ask: “Is there a literature on Europeanization beyond Europe?” Obviously, the study of Europeanization is largely confined to the impact of European integration and governance on the member states of the European Union (EU). In addition, a few studies have expanded the scope of Europeanization analysis to the “quasi-member states”, above all Norway and Switzerland (e.g. Fischer et al. 2002 ; Lægreid et al. 2004 ; Mach et al. 2003 ; Sciarini et al. 2004 ; Sverdrup and Kux 2000 ). Even more recently, the study of Europeanization has begun to include the candidate states for EU membership (see the Living Review by Sedelmeier 2006 ). But is there any “literature” on “Europeanization beyond Europe”, that is, countries that are not eligible for membership in the foreseeable future? The editors of a recent compilation of Europeanization research, while positing that the scope of Europeanization is not conceptually limited to the impact of the EU on its member states, admit that their own handbook is no exception from this focus (Vink and Graziano 2007 : 9, 12). None of its 25 chapters deals with Europeanization beyond the accession countries. In addition, a title search in any major literature database combining the keyword of “Europeanization” with the names of major countries or continents will produce very little output, and the output it produces is likely to be full of “noise” – articles and books that are really about the member and candidate states and those that use “Europeanization” in a very loose and metaphorical sense and with little if any references to the Europeanization literature in political science studies of the EU.

Second, and more fundamentally, the sceptical reader may argue that the literature fails to mention “Europeanization” for a good reason and ask: “Is there Europeanization beyond Europe?” It is certainly plausible to assume that EU organizations, policies, and decisions have a relevant domestic impact in the member states, in the quasi-member states that participate in the internal market and in a significant number of other EU policies, and in the candidate states that need to adopt the acquis communautaire in order to qualify for membership. But can the EU also have a systematic and distinctive influence beyond Europe?

This is a legitimate question and it has triggered my interest for doing this review. What does the literature tell us about the EU’s goals and instruments in this area? What are the “mechanisms” of Europeanization beyond the group of actual and would-be members? To what extent and under which conditions has the EU been effective in Europeanizing countries beyond its membership region? A useful comparative starting point for answering these questions is the state of the art in the neighboring field of the Europeanization of candidate and accession countries (Sedelmeier 2006 ).

(1) In the case of quasi-members and candidate countries it is obvious that the transfer of the acquis communautaire is at the core of Europeanization. Participation in the highly regulated single market requires the adoption of its rules; and EU enlargement has always been based on the principle that new members need to transpose the entire acquis, albeit with certain transition periods. Beyond the EU, the European Economic Area (EEA), and the candidate countries, the content appears less predetermined. So, what is the substance of Europeanization beyond Europe? Which ideas, norms, rules, organizational structures and procedures, behavioral patterns etc. spread intentionally or unintentionally beyond the integrated Europe?

(2) Whereas the EU uses the incentive of membership as the main – and overall effective – lever to make applicant countries adopt its rules (at least formally), this instrument is not available beyond Europe. Which other instruments and strategies do the EU then have at its disposal? And can these instruments and strategies be successful in the absence of the membership incentive and the accession conditionality that often comes with it?

(3) Finally, then, has the EU been able to transfer its rules and practices beyond the confines of its member and candidate countries? Whereas there is no doubt that a massive transfer of EU rules and practices is taking place during the accession phase in countries aspiring to become EU members, it is far from obvious that countries outside the group of potential member states should be subject to Europeanization in a similarly pervasive way.

To be sure, there is a growing literature on those EU external policies that are directed towards or likely to affect the domestic political systems, politics and policies of states beyond Europe. But “Europeanization” is rarely mentioned in this literature, let alone featured in the titles of books and articles. Rather, this literature talks about the EU as an international or global actor, as a civilian or normative power, the EU’s foreign or external policy or policies, or its relations with various regions of the world. In addition, this literature focuses on what the EU is in the international system (“actor”, “presence”, or “system”; “civilian”, “trade”, or “normative power”, to name some of the favorite concepts) and what it does in its external relations (policy decisions, content, instruments, and strategies) rather than whether and how it affects third countries. What is more, to the extent that the literature does study the impact of the EU, it concentrates on the impact of the EU on the international system (e.g. its balance of power) or on specific international regimes (such as international climate or trade policy). This leaves just a very small part of the literature studying the domestic impact of the EU beyond Europe – which is the core of the Europeanization research agenda. This review will therefore be based on a second reading of the relevant portion of the EU external relations literature, focusing on what we can learn from it for the study of Europeanization.

As a consequence, this review cannot be organized around seminal books or articles on “Europeanization beyond Europe” but needs to start from substantive questions and theoretical perspectives to assemble answers that are scattered across the literature. The main body of the review has four parts. The first introduces theoretical perspectives for studying Europeanization beyond Europe. The subsequent parts follow the three questions arising from comparing Europeanization beyond Europe with Europeanization in the accession states: goals and contents; instruments and strategies; effectiveness and impact. In the final section, I draw a few general conclusions on the findings of the literature and the future research agenda.

This version of the review will focus on general principles of political order promoted by the EU (regionalism, democracy, and human rights) and on comparative analyses of Europeanization beyond Europe. Future updates and revisions of this review will include studies focusing on specific regions and countries as well as specific EU policies.